Calculators in the classroom: A look to the future.

Introduction

Electronic calculators are now over 25 years old. In the beginning they were simple "four function" devices that did only basic arithmetic such as the Texas Instruments "DataMath" costing $120 US in 1972. They were soon followed by "electronic slide rules," scientific calculators, that did sophisticated transcendental computations with 8 to 12 digit accuracy. The first scientific calculator was the HP-35 introduced in 1972 (it cost $395 US). Scientific calculators are now very inexpensive ($10 to 20 US) and have significantly changed the mathematics curriculum taught in most countries. For example, we no longer spend time teaching paper and pencil methods to compute values of transcendental functions. More time could be spent on applications and conceptual understanding as scientific calculator use became widespread.

Ten years ago calculators took a giant evolutionary step and added new functionality found only on large desktop PC computers. These were the so-called graphing calculators, first invented by Casio in 1985. Graphing calculators started a revolution in the teaching and learning of mathematics. Inexpensive graphing calculators were really computers with built-in graphing software. Graphing calculators could be viewed as computers available to all students because of their low cost, ease of use, and portability (Demana and Waits, 1992).

Before graphing calculators, teachers had to rely exclusively on expensive computer laboratories (usually in a separate computer laboratory) to deliver computer enhanced visualization in mathematics teaching and learning. Only a few elite schools could provide such an experience to students on a regular basis. The significance of these small, inexpensive, hand-held devices should not be under estimated. Graphing calculators now provide millions of students significant experience enhancing their mathematics learning experience with computer visualization. Teachers are now able to present mathematical ideas, concepts, and applications in both symbolic as well as numerical and graphical representations. Powerful new approaches to learning mathematics have been made possible by graphing calculators. It is now well established that a richer mathematics curriculum is possible when all students have access to graphing calculators.

Graphing calculators do have powerful built-in numerical and graphical software. However, they lack three very significant software applications for enhancing mathematics that are commonly available on expensive desktop computers: computer symbolic algebra (CSA), computer interactive geometry, and spreadsheets. Of particular significance for mathematics curriculum reform is student use of CSA. A practical (inexpensive) device for delivering powerful CSA for mathematics learning was needed. The next great leap in the evolution of hand-held calculators was provided by Texas Instruments in 1995.

Waits - 2 OCT 1996



There is a PDF file available for this paper.


Gómez, P. & Waits, B. (Eds.) (1996). Roles of calculators in the classroom.

Mail comments to Pedro Gómez: pgomez@uniandes.edu.co